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Introduction

Computers have had and continue to have a major impact on mapping

We can still make maps by hand...but

There is very little non-computer mapping anymore

• transforming the way we get the data to map

• transforming the way we design and produce maps

• transforming the kind of maps we can make

• transforming the way we use maps

A question to ponder: what is the future of the paper map?

Today and next few lectures: An Overview of Computers and Mapping

• overview of major issues concerning computer maps and software

• Exercise 3: Mapping & GIS Tools

Computers and Mapping

Two very broad categories:

• Map Images

• Maps linked to Databases

Map Images

Map Images: a digital equivalent of a printed map

• Examples

  WWW) Map Art maps: postscript format, can edit with Illustrator (or other) graphic design software.

  WWW) Map Collections & Libraries online: .jpg, .gif, .tif, etc.; can edit with Photoshop.

• in both cases, map images are static illustrations which can be superficially modified.

Maps connected to Databases:

• database: a store of information in digital form organized such that retrieval can be done on a selective basis

Most common: a digital link between a spreadsheet/database and a digital map

• Spreadsheet/Database

• One column is geographic entity linked to the digital map: point (a well), line (a road), area (a county)

• Other columns are attributes: county population 1910, 1920, 1930, etc.

• Convenient and efficient way to store and view and analyze data with a spatial component

  
  

  

  
  
  

  Example: ArcGIS: digital 'connection' between map and data

  
  

  relational database: relate two data sets via common column of data

  FIPS codes

  • unique geographical code (address) for geographic units (US and World)

  • very important for Geographic Information Systems: GIS

Geographical Information Systems (GIS) and Geographic Information Science (GISci)

Pre-Computer GIS: The fundamental ideas behind GIS were established before computers existed. Computers make GIS analysis much easier to perform, but GIS does not absolutely require a computer

Classic example of pre-computer GIS: Ian McHarg: Using GIS to locate a new road (Design With Nature, 1969)

• compiling maps of various environmental factors (slope, drainage)

• key: dark areas = less appropriate, light areas = more appropriate

• idea of map layers: same area, different distribution of data

• idea of overlay: combining two or more coordinated map layers

  
  

• McHarg: Environmental Factors:
  

  

  

  

  
  
  

• McHarg: Environmental Factors Overlay
  

  
  
  

• McHarg: Social Factors
  

  

  

  

  

  

  
  
  

• McHarg: Social Factors Overlay
  

  
  
  

• McHarg: Environmental and Social Factors Overlay: Recommended Route
  

There is an important human and social component of GIS: it is not only hardware, software, and concepts of spatial analysis.

• McHarg: Social Factors:
  

  

  
  
  

• Who decides these factors?

Defining GIS

GIS developed out of a diversity of software applications:

• land information systems

• computer aided drafting (CAD)

• computer aided mapping (CAM)

• geomatics

• databases

• data capture (digitizing, scanning)

• statistical analysis software

• spatial analysis software

• graphic design software

GIS is defined in two broad ways: GIS and GISci

1. GIS as geographic information systems (GIS) an integrative set of technologies: combine the functions of the different software packages above into one package

• functions include:
  • data capture: how do you get data in a digital format compatible with the software?

  • data analysis: spatial and statistical analysis of the data

  • visualization/display: manipulating the data on a map on the screen

  • output: designing the finished map at the end of a GIS project

    
    

• Multiple digital map layers, each linked to databases, aligned in a particular geographic coordinate system (latitude/longitude)
  

  
  

• provides analytical functions: query, selection, buffer, intersect
  • Example: overlay (locating a road example)

    
    

  • Example: query

    
    

  • Example: selection

    
    

  • Example: buffer

    
    

  • Example: intersect

    
    

• Technical characteristics and applications development of GIS
  • WWW) ESRI GIS Applications

  • WWW) Wikipiedia GIS Applications

  
  

• The future: GIS on the Internet
  • Internet GIS: Delaware County WWW GIS, and ArcOnline

  • Internet Mapping (expanding to GIS): Google Maps and the explosion of Google Map Hacks and Google MyMaps

• theories and concepts from spatial analysis, cognitive studies of spatial understanding, cartography and visualization, institutional or social context of GIS use

• the intellectual characteristics and development of GIS

• WWW) Project Varenius: Research in GIS

  
  

• address matching: use spatial identifier (house address, parcel number, etc.) to link data to map

• metadata: data about data (describes who created data, when created, quality, use restrictions, etc.)

• Global Positioning Systems (GPS): satellite delivered data on locations/elevations

• GPS Benchmarks: accurate location/elevation monuments in environment based on GPS data; links to GIS maps

• coverage: a digital map layer in GIS

• geography: a digital map layer in GIS

• TIGER files: digital 'geography' or 'coverage' (map) from Census Bureau

• nodes: points located on a map layer in GIS

• attributes: data associated with a point, line, or area in a map layer in GIS

• identify function of GIS: point and click and get info from GIS database (access 'attributes' thru the 'coverage'/'geography' or, in english, the digital map layer

• query: more sophisticated request for information from GIS

• buffer: generate area around a point, line, or area for a sophisticated query (Meghan's Law)

A few things to keep in mind about GIS...

• GIS is more than just making maps

• GIS is developing rapidly, but still has difficult technological and conceptual issues to tackle

• GIS come in differing levels of sophistication: ArcGIS vs Google Earth

• GIS functions are increasingly being developed for the internet

• Getting data into GIS is a huge undertaking

  
  

  

E-mail: jbkrygier@owu.edu

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